Light activated photoreaction via genetic hybridization of far-red fluorescent protein and silk

ABSTRACT

A method of inactivating harmful microorganisms of a filtration medium including pathogenic bacteria and viruses is disclosed which includes placing a predetermined quantity of a hybridized fluorescent silk on to a filtration medium, applying light for a predetermined amount of time to the placed quantity of the hybridized fluorescent silk, and passing a fluid through the medium, wherein the fluid is one of substantially air or substantially water,wherein the hybridized fluorescent silk is one of KillerRed, SuperNova, KillerOrange, Dronpa, TurboGFP, mCherry, or any combination thereof.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present patent application is a divisional application of U.S.Non-Provisional application Ser. No. 15/874,864 filed Jan. 18, 2018which is related to and claims the priority benefit of U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application Ser. No. 62/448,332, filed Jan. 19, 2017, and U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/593,976, filed Dec. 3, 2017,the contents of each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in itsentirety into the present disclosure.

STATEMENT REGARDING GOVERNMENT FUNDING

This invention was made with government support under FA2386-16-1-4114awarded by US Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The governmenthas certain rights in the invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure generally relates to activation of silk with afluorescent protein, and in particular, to a genetic hybridization offluorescent protein and silk used in antimicrobial and antiviralapplications.

BACKGROUND

This section introduces aspects that may help facilitate a betterunderstanding of the disclosure. Accordingly, these statements are to beread in this light and are not to be understood as admissions about whatis or is not prior art.

The recent advances in plasmonics and nanophotonics have opened avariety of new possibilities to engineer nanomaterials to haveproperties that do not exist naturally, which is known as metamaterials.Specifically, plasmonic photocatalysis, which requires a combination ofsemiconductor nanoparticles and metals, has recently facilitated therapid progress in enhancing photocatalytic efficiency under visible orsolar light. Visible light driven plasmonic photocatalysis have resultedin a variety of applications, including hydrogen generation, carbondioxide reduction, desalination, disinfection, and water/airpurification. However, such conventional photocatalysis is intrinsicallylimited for large-scale, economical, and eco-friendly production.

The phototoxicity of fluorescent proteins, in particular red fluorescentproteins (RFP) is unanimously acknowledged in several differentscientific communities; RFP often generates and releases reactive oxygenspecies (ROS) upon light excitation, while the exact types of ROS varyamong different RFP variants. Since the use of conventional RFP wasrestricted by cytotoxicity, noncytotoxic RFP variants have beensuccessfully developed for whole-cell labeling and cellular imaging invivo. As an opposite utilization, RFP has also been used as a means ofselectively damaging specific proteins upon light activation, which isalso known as chromophore-assisted light inactivation. In this case, RFPis recapitulated as ‘genetically-encoded ROS-generating proteins’ forinactivating target cells and ablating tissue of interest. However,biologically compatible and biodegradable carriers of RFP remainelusive.

As an excellent biomaterial for skin smoothing and regeneration, silkcan be used as fabrics or processed into host materials and structures.

Therefore, there is an unmet need for a novel approach and arrangementto utilize proteins capable of generating reactive oxygen species in abiocompatible and biodegradable manner.

SUMMARY

A method of visible light driven-disinfection of a surface of an objectexposed or attached to harmful microorganisms including pathogenicbacteria and viruses using a genetically hybridized fluorescent silk isprovided. The method includes placing a predetermined quantity of thegenetically hybridized fluorescent silk i) directly on to a skin surfaceof a subject; or ii) on a medium and then placing the medium on the skinsurface of the subject. The method further includes applying light inthe visible spectrum for a predetermined amount of time to the placedquantity of genetically hybridized fluorescent silk.

Another method of disinfection of a filtration medium of harmfulmicroorganisms including pathogenic bacteria and viruses upon visiblelight irradiation using a genetically hybridized fluorescent silk, isalso disclosed. The method includes placing a predetermined quantity ofthe genetically hybridized fluorescent silk on to a filtration mediumand applying light for a predetermined amount of time to the placedquantity of the genetically hybridized fluorescent silk. The method alsoincludes passing a fluid through the medium, wherein the fluid is one ofair or water.

Another method of preserving fruit and/or vegetables is disclosed. Themethod includes placing a predetermined quantity of a geneticallyhybridized fluorescent silk i) directly on to a skin surface of afruit/vegetable; or ii) on a medium and then placing the medium on theskin surface of the fruit/vegetable. The method further includesapplying light for a predetermined amount of time to the placed quantityof the genetically hybridized fluorescent silk.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed incolor. Copies of this patent or patent application publication withcolor drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and paymentof the necessary fee.

FIG. 1A is a schematic illustration of reactive oxygen species (ROS)generating mKate2 (transgenic) silk cocoons vs. white (wild-type) silkcocoons both under white light and under green light activation.

FIG. 1B is a schematic representing construction of transfer vectorp3xP3-EGFP-pFibH-mKate2 for mKate2 silkworm transgenesis.

FIG. 1C is a photograph (left) and fluorescent image (right) of the silkgland for the transgenic mKate2 silkworm larvae at the 3rd day of the5th instar.

FIG. 2A is a graph of C_(t)/C₀ vs. irradiation time (in minutes) whereC₀ and C_(t) denote the initial concentration and reactionconcentration, respectively.

FIG. 2B is a bar graph of colony-forming units (CFU) of live E. coli(DH5α) which are counted in white silk and mKate2 silk discs with andwithout weak green LED light activation for different irradiationperiods of 30 and 60 minutes in a bar graph of CFU vs. white silk andmKate2 silk for different irradiation schemes.

FIG. 2C is a graph of CFU vs. irradiation time in minutes.

FIG. 3A is a graph of fluorescence of

mediated by Type I photosensitization reaction, captured by turn-onfluorescent signals of TEMPO-9-ac.

FIG. 3B is a fluorescence graph in which O₂ mediated by Type IIphotosensitization reaction is detected by reduction of the original9,10-Anthracenediyl-bis(methylene)dimalonic acid (ABDA) fluorescence.

FIG. 3C is a fluorescence graph for ABDA for O₂ that show reduction inphotobleaching of mKate2 silk discs which is quantified by thenormalized fluorescent intensity of mKate2 silk in the presence offluorogenic scavengers of TEMPO-9-ac for 02.

FIG. 3D is a fluorescence graph of a mixture of TEMPO-9-ac and ABDA.

FIG. 3E a fluorescence graph that shows differences in fluorescentsignals with respect to controls without the scavengers.

FIG. 4A is a set of photographs and fluorescent images of mKate2 silksolution and film.

FIG. 4B is another set of photographs and fluorescent images of mKate2silk solution and film.

FIG. 4C is a photograph of large-area flexible mKate2 silk film with adiameter of about 120 mm.

FIG. 4D is a graph of fluorescent emission signals of radical sensingprobes of TEMPO-9-ac for

. The inset of FIG. 4D shows differences in fluorescent spectra withrespect to controls (before green light activation).

FIG. 4E is a graph of fluorescent emission signals of radical sensingprobes of TEMPO-9-ac for ABDA. The inset of FIG. 4E shows differences influorescent spectra with respect to controls (before green lightactivation).

FIGS. 5A-5E are schematics of various embodiments representingapplications of mKate2 silk or other variations of the geneticallymodified silkworm produced silk including protective suits includingscrubs, gloves, or other sheet material that can be used in medical andnon-medical garment industry (including for burn patients), masks,wallpaper, bandages, and filtration applications.

FIGS. 6A-6D are schematics of various other embodiments of fluorescentsilk polymers including an ointment gel for wounds to be applieddirectly to skin surface, polymer films, mask packs, and separatebandage patches attachable to existing bandages.

FIG. 7 is a set of photographs of blackberry fruit which is wrapped withmKate2 silk, for day 1 and day 7, as compared to a control populationwhich is free of mKate2.

FIG. 8 is a schematic of a process for making various embodiments ofmKate2 silk.

FIG. 9 is a schematic showing a nucleotide sequences of pFibH-NTR andCTR derived from Genebank Accession No. AF226688. pFibH: fibroin heavychain promoter domain (1124 bp), NTR-1: N-terminal region 1 (142 bp),intron: first intron (871 bp), NTR-2: N-terminal region 2 (417 bp), CTR:Cterminal region (179 bp), PolyA: poly(A) signal region (301 bp), EGFP:enhanced green fluorescent protein gene, mKate2: monomeric far-redfluorescent protein, ITR (BacR, BacL): inverted repeat sequences ofpiggyBac arms, 3xP3: 3xP3 promoter, and SV40: SV40 polyadenylationsignal sequence.

FIGS. 10A and 10B are sequence listings for peptides from mKate2 andsequence alignment of mKate2/Fibroin H-chain fusion recombinant proteinamino acid.

FIG. 11 is photograph (left) and fluorescent image (right) of the silkgland for the transgenic mKate2 silkworm larvae at the 3rd day of the5th instar.

FIGS. 12A, 12B, and 12C include an SEM image of mKate2 silk fibers (FIG.12A); and confocal fluorescence microscopy images of mKate2 silk fibersunder green light excitation (FIGS. 12B and 12C).

FIG. 13 is a graph of C_(t)/C₀ vs. irradiation time (in min), whichrepresent confounding factors in photodegradation of methylene blue bymKate2 silk.

FIG. 14 are schematics of two detection scenarios for assessing ROSgenerated from mKate2 silk upon green light activation.

FIG. 15A is a set of fluorescent images of TEMPO-9-ac in mKate2 silkdiscs before (control) and after green light activation for 240 minutes.

FIG. 15B is a set of fluorescent spectra of TEMPO-9-ac in mKate2 silkdiscs before (control) and after green light activation for 240 minutes.

FIG. 16 is a schematic of photobleaching monitoring of mKate2fluorescence, in accordance with the present disclosure.

FIGS. 17A and 17B are normalized fluorescent intensity of mKate2 silkwith and without scavengers of nitro blue tetrazolium chloride (NBT) for

and sodium azide (NaN₃) for ¹O₂, respectively.

FIG. 18A is a strain-stress curve of white and mKate2 silk fibers. Theerror bars are standard deviations in elongation at break (horizontalaxis) and fracture strength (vertical axis).

FIG. 18B is a photograph of a woven silk fabric of about 110 cm×140 cm.

FIGS. 19A and 19B are fluorescent spectra of regenerated mKate2 silk informs of a solution (FIG. 19A) and a film (FIG. 19B), respectively.

FIG. 19C is a schematic showing capability of a regenerated mKate2 silkfilm to be integrated with a bandage, offering an additionalfunctionality of controllable ROS release using a simple light source.

FIG. 20A is a graph of C_(t)/C₀ vs. irradiation time (in min) showingphotodegradation of methylene blue upon green light activation is shown.The inset of FIG. 20A shows a kinetic plot for methylene bluedegradation by mKate2 silk film after factoring out the adsorbent effectof mKate2 silk film and the photolytic effect of light irradiation(kapp=1.12×10−3 min-1).

FIG. 20B is a graph of C_(t)/C₀ vs. irradiation time (in min) showingconfounding factors in photodegradation of methylene blue by mKate2 silkfilm for the adsorption of methylene blue to the mKate2 silk film andthe photolysis of methylene blue under the green light irradiation areprovided. The error bars represent standard deviations.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of thepresent disclosure, reference will now be made to the embodimentsillustrated in the drawings, and specific language will be used todescribe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitationof the scope of this disclosure is thereby intended.

In the present disclosure, the term “about” can allow for a degree ofvariability in a value or range, for example, within 10%, within 5%, orwithin 1% of a stated value or of a stated limit of a range.

In the present disclosure, the term “substantially” can allow for adegree of variability in a value or range, for example, within 90%,within 95%, or within 99% of a stated value or of a stated limit of arange.

In the present disclosure, a hybridization of a photosensitizationplatform based on mKate2 and silk using genetically engineered silkwormshas been disclosed for a variety of novel applications. Theseapplications include biomedical antimicrobial and antiviralapplications. Data is presented herein to show how the mKate2 silk caneffectively reduce E. coli colonies with exposure to visible light,without using ultra-violet light. Other applications such as wearableand edible arrangement are and data associated with the same areprovided to improve human's constant battle against microbial and viralcolonies without the use of potentially harmful toxic nanoparticles orcarcinogens. Without a need of additional nanoconjugations (e.g. metals,dye molecules, and quantum dots), red fluorescent proteins (RFP) can beexcited by solar (visible) and green light, avoiding the most commoncarcinogen exposure of ultra-violet light. Both fluorescent proteins andsilk are degradable and digestible, eliminating the potential risk ofexposure and consumption. As a biosynthesis reactor (i.e. greenmanufacturing), silkworm transgenesis is known for producing recombinantproteins into silk in large amounts. Silk fibers are easily woven intolarge-area, continuous, and flexible fabrics using the existing textilemanufacturing infrastructure. The unprecedentedly strong lightscattering of native silk, which is manifested as the ‘silvery’ and‘lustrous’ reflection, can enhance interactions of light with RFP insidesilk fibers.

Fluorescent proteins, in particular red fluorescent proteins oftenproduce phototoxic reactive oxygen radicals, which are considered as adetrimental side effect in cellular imaging or are proactively employedfor ablation in cancerous tissue. Additionally, silk produced bysilkworms can directly be used as fabrics or processed into hostmaterials and structures.

According to the present disclosure, transgenic fusion of far-redfluorescent protein (mKate2) with silk provides a photosensitizationhybridization platform for photoinducibly controlling reactive oxygenspecies. Taking advantage of green (visible) light activation, nativeand regenerated mKate2 silk generate superoxide radical and singletmolecular oxygen, in a comparable manner of visible light-drivenplasmonic photocatalysis. The genetic expression of mKate2 in silkoffers immediately exploitable scalable photocatalyst materials indiverse formats and excludes potentially hazardous effects associatedwith foreign semiconductor photocatalytic nanomaterials.

The phototoxicity of fluorescent proteins, in particular red fluorescentproteins (RFP) is utilized according to the present disclosure togenerate and release reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon lightexcitation. Noncytotoxic RFP variants have been successfully developedfor whole-cell labeling and cellular imaging in vivo. As an oppositeutilization, RFP has also been used as a means of selectively damagingspecific proteins upon light activation, which is also known aschromophore-assisted light inactivation. In this case, RFP isrecapitulated as ‘genetically-encoded ROS-generating proteins’ forinactivating target cells and ablating tissue of interest. All of thesecharacteristics of RFP make RFP a good candidate to replace the use ofsemiconductor nanocrystals or conjugated nanoparticles forphotocatalysis.

Some fluorescent proteins participate in Type I and Type IIphotosensitization reactions involving the generation of ROS.Predominant free radicals generated by fluorescent proteins depend onthe type of photosensitization reactions and the concentration of localmolecular oxygen (i.e. electron acceptor). For example, (enhanced) greenfluorescent protein, (E)GFP typically produces singlet oxygen (¹O₂) viaType II reaction, in which energy transfer occurs from the excitedtriplet state of the fluorescent protein to molecular oxygen. RFP suchas KillerRed can undergo Type I photosensitization reaction, in whichelectron transfer to molecular oxygen yields superoxide (

). Another advantageous aspect of ROS resulting from Type I and Type IIreactions is that the migration (or damage) distance ranges from 1.5 nmto 200 nm. The enhanced diffusion distance and lifetime of singletoxygen can serve more selective radical species, rather than beinginstantaneously reactive. Importantly, the resultant ROS (i.e.

and in particular ¹O₂) generated by plasmonic photocatalysis usingvisible light are the same as that of RFP photosensitization reactions.

According to the present disclosure, biological hybridization of far-redfluorescent proteins and some natural proteins (i.e. silk) is disclosedfor a new class of genetically encoded photosensitization activatedusing visible (or solar) light, directly producing selective radicalspecies. Direct detection of ROS is known to be highly challenging,because ROS is extremely reactive and unstable. Thus, a novel approachinvolving turn-on/off fluorescent probes and physicalquenchers/scavengers to experimentally validate ROS generated bytransgenic RFP silk upon green light activation is also disclosed.Further, transgenic RFP silk can be mass-produced by scalable andcontinuous manufacturing. Using the polymeric nature of silk, transgenicRFP silk is also processed into nanomaterials and nanostructures in avariety of forms. This approach can overcome the limitation of potentialadverse effects associated with foreign synthesized nanoparticles.

Silk produced by silkworms has extensively been utilized as fabrics andprocessed into engineered biomaterials due to its various merits of thesuperior mechanical and optical properties as well as thebiocompatibility and biodegradability. According to the presentdisclosure, genetically engineered domesticated silkworms are used togenerate the biomaterial of interest. The transgenes of interests areexpressed by germline transformation using the gene splicing methodpiggyBac, known to a person having ordinary skill in the art. Thissilkworm transgenesis method yields transformed animals for multiplesuccessive generations and produces recombinant substances in largeamounts. Silkworm transgenesis readily produces natural photocatalystand photosensitizer materials in an eco-friendly manner, minimizing theuse of industrial facilities. Regarding ecological hazard, transgenicsilkworms are highly unlikely to pose threats to natural ecosystems,because silkworms are dependent on humans for survival and reproductionas a completely domesticated indoor insect.

mKate2, which is a far-red monomeric fluorescent protein, was chosen asthe transgenic RFP silk. Referring to FIG. 1A, a schematic illustrationof ROS generating mKate2 (transgenic) silk cocoons vs. white (wild-type)silk cocoons is shown both under white light and under green lightactivation. When light shines on mKate2 silk, dye molecules becomeexcited from their ground state to a higher energy state, therebyreleasing electrons. Oxygen molecules in presence of free electrons gothrough a reductive reaction (O₂→O₂ ⁻) thereby generating reactiveoxygen species (ROS) of superoxide (

) radical and singlet molecular oxygen (¹O₂), as shown in FIG. 1A. Alsoshown in FIG. 1A is a spectral output showing mKate2 energy as afunction of light wavelength in nm. The AM 1.5 Standard spectrum refersto a standard terrestrial solar spectrum. The green and the red curvespresents the absorption spectrum and the fluorescent emission spectrumof mKate2. Thus, mKate2 is activated by solar light.

Green light belongs to the peak wavelength range of the solar spectrum.From a phototoxicity standpoint, mKate and mKate2 are widely consideredas one of the cytotoxic standards. From a protein structural standpoint,the phototoxic action of mKate is commonly acknowledged to originatefrom a cleft-like opening channel filled with water molecules inside,allowing for enhanced generation and release of ROS. Specifically, mKatehas a cleft-like β-barrel frame between β sheets (β7 and β0), resultingin relatively high phototoxicity. Several other fluorescent proteins,including KillerRed, SuperNova, KillerOrange, Dronpa, TurboGFP, andmCherry, have similar a β-barrel structure with a water-filled pore,which can also be used to tune the excitation wavelength range and toselect the photosensitization properties.

Referring to FIG. 1B, a schematic representing construction of transfervector p3xP3-EGFP-pFibH-mKate2 for mKate2 silkworm transgenesis isshown. For hybridization of mKate2 and silk, mKate2 gene is fused withN-terminal and C-terminal domains of the fibroin heavy chain promoter(pFibH); p3xP3-EGFP-pFibH-mKate2 is the constructed transformationvector Referring to FIG. 9, a schematic is provided showing a nucleotidesequences of pFibH-NTR and CTR are derived from Genebank Accession No.AF226688. pFibH: fibroin heavy chain promoter domain (1124 bp), NTR-1:N-terminal region 1 (142 bp), intron: first intron (871 bp), NTR-2:N-terminal region 2 (417 bp), CTR: Cterminal region (179 bp), PolyA:poly(A) signal region (301 bp), EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent proteingene, mKate2: monomeric far-red fluorescent protein, ITR (BacR, BacL):inverted repeat sequences of piggyBac arms, 3xP3: 3xP3 promoter, andSV40: SV40 polyadenylation signal sequence. 3xP3-EGFP is only forscreening a large number of G1 broods, because EGFP fluorescent signalsare easily monitored in the stemmata and nervous system at earlyembryonic and larval stages. Referring to FIGS. 1C and 11, photographs(left) and fluorescent images (right) of the silk gland for thetransgenic mKate2 silkworm larvae at the 3rd day of the 5th instar areprovided. The silk gland of genetically-encoded mKate2 silkworms isfluorescent.

The homogenous production of mKate2 silk results in a mass density of ˜12.6% mKate2/Fibroin H-chain fusion recombinant protein. In FIG. 1A,white (wild-type) silk cocoons are not fluorescent, whilemKate2-expressing silk cocoons are fluorescent at excitation ofλ_(ex)=543 nm. Referring to FIGS. 10A and 10B, shown are sequencelistings for peptides from mKate2 and sequence alignment ofmKate2/Fibroin H-chain fusion recombinant protein amino acid. Thesurface morphologies of silk cocoons were imaged using a scanningelectron microscopy (SEM) system (FEI Quanta 3D FEG; Oregon, USA) at 10keV. In exploiting the fluorescence emission of mKate2 silk, we alsoperformed confocal imaging using an Olympus Fluoview FV1000 confocallaser scanning system adapted to an Olympus IX81 inverted microscopewith a 20×UPlanSApo water immersion objective (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). Agreen laser excitation source (λ_(ex)=543 nm) was used with a detectionbandpass of 600-700 nm. The typical configuration of confocal microscopycan be summarized as follows: confocal aperture size=50 μm (i.e. ˜ 0.5airy unit), NA=0.4, and scan speed (pixel dwell time)=10 μs/pixel. 43image slices were stacked with a slice thickness of 5 μm along thez-axis, covering an area up to ˜ 1270×1270 μm². The three-dimensional(3D) stacked image was also visualized using Imaris 5.0.

Referring to FIGS. 12A, 12B, and 12C, an SEM image of mKate2 silk fibers(FIG. 12A); confocal fluorescence microscopy images of mKate2 silkfibers under green light excitation (FIGS. 12B and 12C), are provided.Mass density of mKate2/Fibroin H-chain fusion recombinant protein in thetransgenic mKate2 silk is estimated to be ˜ 12.6%.

FIG. 2A, is a graph of C_(t)/C₀ vs. irradiation time (in minutes) whereC₀ and C_(t) denote the initial concentration and reactionconcentration, respectively. FIG. 2A represents a photometrical analysisof the photocatalytic activity of mKate2 silk for degrading organic bluedye molecules (i.e. methylene blue) in an aqueous solution under greenlaser light activation (λ_(ex)=532 nm and optical intensity≈0.2 mW/mm²)at the ambient room temperature. Although this method is not specific toparticular types of ROS, degradation of methylene blue is standardlyused to validate photocatalysis. Silk has a strong affinity to organicmolecules and metal ions. Loss of blue color in a methylene bluesolution containing mKate2 silk discs is attributable to infiltration ofmethylene blue to silk fibers as well as photolysis of green light.Referring to FIG. 13, a graph of C_(t)/C₀ vs. irradiation time (min)under different light irradiation is provided. Adsorption of methyleneblue to mKate2 silk and photolysis of methylene blue under green lightirradiation is shown in FIG. 13, which represent Confounding factors inphotodegradation of methylene blue by mKate2 silk. The error barsrepresent standard deviations. Thus, separate degradation measurementsare performed to account for the adsorption of methylene blue to silkunder a dark condition (i.e. no light irradiation) and the photolysis ofmethylene blue itself without any silk discs. After factoring out theseconfounding effects, the contribution of ROS generated by the mKate2silk discs is significant; a linear fit between ln(C_(t)/C₀) of mKate2silk and the irradiation time t results in an apparentpseudo-first-order rate constant (k_(app)) value of 2.46×10⁻⁴ min⁻. Theinset in FIG. 2A represents a kinetic plot for methylene bluedegradation by mKate2 silk after factoring out both adsorption ofmethylene blue to mKate2 silk and photolysis of methylene blue undergreen light irradiation. The error bars are standard deviations.

As a model system of testing ROS production, the phototoxicity of mKate2silk on Escherichia coli (E. coli) upon green light activation was alsoexamined. Referring to FIG. 2B, colony-forming units (CFU) of live E.coli (DH5a) which are counted in white silk and mKate2 silk discs withand without weak green LED light activation for different irradiationperiods of 30 and 60 minutes in a bar graph of CFU vs. white silk andmKate2 silk for different irradiation schemes. The inset representsphotograph of mKate2 silk discs with and without E. coli and SEM imageof mKate2 silk attached with E. coli before light irradiation. Onlystatistically significant reduction in the survival of E. coli occursbetween irradiated (Light ON) and unirradiated (Light OFF) mKate2 silkfor 60 minutes (multiple comparison p-value=0.031).

The error bars represent standard deviations from 3 assays with 4replicates (12 samples) in each group. Historically, ROS generated fromconventional photocatalysis has extensively been validated bydemonstrating their antimicrobial activities. After DH5α E. coli cellsare attached on silk discs (Inset of FIG. 2B), illumination from easilyaccessible green LED light (λ_(ex)=530 nm with a FWHM of 30 nm andoptical intensity≈0.02 mW/mm²), which is ˜ 10 times weaker than that ofthe green laser above, is irradiated on the surfaces of white silk andmKate2 silk for 30-60 minutes at the ambient room temperature. Suchgreen light activation can not only be accessible from sunlight, butalso belongs to the peak solar radiation spectrum. Dark controls arealso maintained without any light irradiation. In FIG. 2B,colony-forming unit (CFU) counts show a statistically significantdifference only in bacterial inactivation between irradiated (Light ON)and unirradiated (Light OFF) mKate2 silk for 60 minutes (multiplecomparison p-value=0.031), as seen in tables S1 and S2, provided below.Additional data for multiple comparison tests of white silk and mKate2silk with and without weak green LED light activation for irradiationtimes of 30 and 60 minutes are provided below in Tables S1 and S2 below.The survival of E. coli from mKate2 silk under weak green lightactivation (Light ON) is reduced to 45%, compared with the correspondingdark controls (Light OFF). This result supports the idea ofgreen-light-activated genetically encoded photosensitization as analternative ROS generation route, completely avoiding the use ofphotocatalytic semiconductor nanoparticles.

TABLE S1 Multiple comparison tests of white silk and mKate2 silk withand without weak green LED light activation (irradiation time = 30minutes) Mean Colony forming unit (CFU) difference t p-value 95% CIWhite silk + Light OFF vs. −9,683 −0.77 0.472 −3,6252 16,885 Whitesilk + Light ON mKate2 silk + Light OFF vs. 10,692  0.85 0.398 −14,57335,957 White silk + Light ON mKate2 silk + Light ON vs. −4,317 −0.340.732 −29,582 20,948 White silk + Light ON mKate2 silk + Light OFF vs.20,375  1.63 0.145  −7,049 47,799 White silk + Light ON mKate2 silk +Light ON vs.  5,367  0.43 0.671 −19,898 30,632 White silk + Light ONmKate2 silk + Light OFF vs. −15,008  −1.2  0.266 −41,577 11,560 mKate2silk + Light ON

TABLE S2 Multiple comparison tests of white silk and mKate2 silk withand without weak green LED light activation (irradiation time = 60minutes) Mean Colony forming unit (CFU) difference t p-value 95% CIWhite silk + Light OFF vs. −17,967 −1.04 0.305 −52,859 16,926 Whitesilk + Light ON mKate2 silk + Light OFF vs.  5,884  0.34 0.736 −29,00940,776 White silk + Light ON mKate2 silk + Light ON vs. −35,850 −2.070.055 −72,543   843 White silk + Light ON mKate2 silk + Light OFF vs. 23,850  1.38 0.201 −12,843 60,543 White silk + Light ON mKate2 silk +Light ON vs. −17,883 −1.03 0.307 −52,776 17,009 White silk + Light ONmKate2 silk + Light OFF vs. −41,733 −2.41 *0.031  −79,607 −3,860 mKate2silk + Light ONReferring to FIG. 2C, a graph of CFU is presented vs. irradiation timein minutes. A first order approximation of reduction of E. colicolony-forming unit with irradiation of mKate2 silk producessubstantially a linear function shown in FIG. 2C. The function is

CFU = −752.57time + 141884,

where the negative slope is about −752.57,starting point of about 141884, andwhere time is measured in minutes.

Specific types of ROS (e.g.

and ¹O₂) produced by mKate2 silk upon green light activation (λ_(ex)=532nm and optical intensity≈0.2 mW/mm²) were considered. Referring to FIGS.3A-3E, graphs of arbitrary units (a.u.) for turn-on/off fluorescence andfluorogenic scavenger detections of ROS generated by mKate2 silk upongreen light activation are presented. Fluorescent emission signals ofradical sensing probes were recorded from solutions containing mKate2silk discs. FIG. 3A shows a graph of fluorescence of

mediated by Type I photosensitization reaction, captured by turn-onfluorescent signals of TEMPO-9-ac. FIG. 3B shows a fluorescence graph inwhich O₂ mediated by Type II photosensitization reaction is detected byreduction of the original 9,10-Anthracenediyl-bis(methylene)dimalonicacid (ABDA) fluorescence. The inset shows difference in fluorescentspectra with respect to controls before green light activation. FIGS.3C-3E show fluorescence graphs that show reduction in photobleaching ofmKate2 silk discs which is quantified by the normalized fluorescentintensity of mKate2 silk in the presence of fluorogenic scavengers ofTEMPO-9-ac for O₂. In particular, FIG. 3C shows fluorescence for ABDAfor O₂; FIG. 3D shows fluorescence of a mixture of TEMPO-9-ac and ABDA;and FIG. 3E shows differences in fluorescent signals with respect tocontrols without the scavengers.

First,

generated by mKate2 silk via primarily Type I reaction was detected. Thegeneration and release of

are monitored using fluorescent sensing probes; TEMPO-9-ac is used tosense

. Under consistent green light irradiation on mKate2 silk discs immersedin TEMPO-9-ac solutions, fluorescent signals of TEMPO-9-ac (λ_(ex)≈360nm and λ_(em)≈440 nm) are detected in two different configurations: i)The turn-on fluorescent probes are diffused into the TEMPO-9-acsolution.

Referring to FIG. 14, two detection scenarios for assessing ROSgenerated from mKate2 silk upon green light activation are presented.First, spectral measurements is shown where fluorescent signals ofradical probes under excitation of λ_(ex)=365 nm are detected from thesolution including mKate2 silk discs. Second, imaging measurements isshown with fluorescent radical molecular probes are permeated intomKate2 silk discs. Specimens are arranged within the field of view ofthe mesoscopic imaging setup, in which the excitation (λ_(ex)=365 nm)and emission filters (λ_(em)=420-500 nm) are used as illustrated.

Referring back to FIG. 3A, the fluorescent emission intensity ofTEMPO-9-ac increases monotonously with the duration of green lightirradiation, compared to the baseline signals before light activation(controls). After TEMPO-9-ac is permeated into the silk discs, theturn-on fluorescent probes remain inside, which in turn emit blueemission (i.e. fluorescent signal of TEMPO-9-ac) from the mKate2 silkdiscs. 240-min irradiation of green light leads to a 2-fold increase inthe probe fluorescent intensity from the silk discs infiltrated withTEMPO-9-ac, compared with the unirradiated mKate2 silk discs (controls)as shown in FIGS. 15A and 15B. Referring to FIGS. 15A and 15B, turn-onfluorescent signals of TEMPO-9-ac in mKate2 silk before and after greenlight activation is shown. In particular, FIG. 15A shows a fluorescentimage of TEMPO-9-ac in mKate2 silk discs before (control) and aftergreen light activation for 240 minutes, while FIG. 15B shows fluorescentspectra of TEMPO-9-ac in mKate2 silk discs before (control) and aftergreen light activation for 240 minutes.

These results are in excellent agreement with

released from KillerRed, which is one of the highly phototoxic RFPvariants. Second, we detect ¹O₂ generated by mKate2 silk under the samegreen light activation via Type II reaction, using ABDA as a radicalsensing probe. While the original state of ABDA emits fluorescence(λ_(ex)≈380 nm and λ_(em)≈431 nm), ABDA reacts with ¹O₂ to yieldendoperoxide as a turn-off fluorescent radial probe, thus reducing itsfluorescent intensity. In FIG. 3B, the intensity of ABDA fluorescentpeaks gradually drops as the irradiation time increases, supporting thegeneration of ¹O₂.

Using fluorogenic scavengers, the generation of

and ¹O₂ from the radical-based Type I and Type II reactions of mKate2silk were further validated. The phototoxicity of RFP is accompanied byphotobleaching, because the formation of ROS itself facilitates thedegradation excitation-emission cycle of RFP. Interestingly, TEMPO-9-acand ABDA, which are radical sensing probes, can also be used as physicalquenchers of

and ¹O₂, respectively, without directly reacting with other freeradicals. Referring to FIG. 16, photobleaching monitoring of mKate2fluorescence is depicted, in accordance with the present disclosure.TEMPO-9-ac and ABDA, which are used as physical scavengers of ROSgenerated by mKate2 silk, slow down photobleaching of mKate2 in silkfrom phototoxic ROS. In FIGS. 3C and 3D, the inhibition of TEMPO-9-acand ABDA in photobleaching of mKate2 silk provides another level ofevidence in support of

and ¹O₂ production. In other words, the uptake of local surrounding ROS(

and ¹O₂) prevents mKate2 silk from being photodamaged, which ismanifested by the relatively sustained fluorescent intensity of mKate2silk. In a mixed solution of TEMPO-9-ac and ABDA, the fluorescentemission of mKate2 silk is further maintained (FIG. 3E). Reduction ofphotobleaching of mKate2 silk using other scavengers of

(nitro blue tetrazolium chloride, NBT) and ¹O₂ (sodium azide, NaN₃) isalso confirmed with reference to FIGS. 17A and 17B.

FIGS. 17A and 17B demonstrate fluorogenic scavenger detection of ROSgenerated by mKate2 silk upon green light activation using additionalscavengers. FIGS. 17A and 17B show normalized fluorescent intensity ofmKate2 silk with and without scavengers of nitro blue tetrazoliumchloride (NBT) for

and sodium azide (NaN₃) for ¹O₂, respectively. Differences influorescent spectra with respect to controls without the scavengers arealso shown. Top inset of FIG. 17A shows a photograph of bare andNBT-treated (before and after light activation) white and mKate2 silkdiscs, showing

generated from mKate2 silk. After 240-min green light irradiation, thereare no variations in the color (yellow) of white silk, while mKate2 silkchanges to the bluish color, resulting from the formation of bluechromagen diformazan. The error bars are standard deviations.

The direct use of silk fibers produced by silkworms has its ownadvantage as used in the textile industry, because the transgenic silkhas comparable mechanical properties to make woven fabrics, as shown inFIGS. 18A and 18B. Referring to FIGS. 18A and 18B, results of mechanicaltests of mKate2 silk and scalability/continuous manufacturing of silkfabrics are shown. FIG. 18A provides representative strain-stress curvesof white and mKate2 silk fibers. The error bars are standard deviationsin elongation at break (horizontal axis) and fracture strength (verticalaxis). For each silk type, at least 10 randomly selected single fibersof three silk cocoons are tested for statistical analysis. The Young'smoduli are calculated from the first linear regime of the strain-stresscurve before the first bend. FIG. 18B shows a photograph of 110 cm×140cm silk fabric woven. This white silk fabric did not undergo anyadditional chemical treatments except for degumming (i.e. sericinremoval), showing the possibility of scalable and continuous productionusing the conventional textile infrastructures. To evaluate the basicmechanical property (i.e. strain-stress curves) of mKate2 silk fibers, auniversal electromechanical test machine 100P/Q (TestResources Inc.) wasused at an extension rate of 1 mm/min and a gauge length of 10 mm underambient conditions. For both white and mKate2 silk fibers, at least 10randomly selected single fibers from three different cocoons weretested. As shown in FIG. 18A, mKate2 silk fibers exhibit no considerablechange in the mechanical properties, such as the maximum strain, themaximum stress, and the Young's modulus (p-value=0.4). Thus, mKate2 silkfibers can be treated as conventional silk fibers that are woven orconstructed into large-area and continuous fabrics using the textiletechnologies (e.g. knitted dresses and suits) as shown in FIG. 18B. Inother words, mKate2 silk could easily be woven or constructed intolarge-area and continuous fabrics using the existing textileinfrastructure in a scalable manner.

Silk fibroin can further be processed into polymeric materials forfabricating artificially engineered biomaterials and optical materialsin a variety of forms with biocompatibility and bioabsorbablity.However, the conventional fibroin extraction methods are inappropriatefor mKate2 silk, because fluorescent proteins are highly susceptible todenaturation from high temperature and pH values. Minimizingheat-induced denaturation of mKate2, we process mKate2 silk fibroin toan aqueous solution and then form a flexible thin film (FIGS. 4A, 4B,and 4C). Referring to FIGS. 4A-4C, regenerated mKate2 silk and detectionof ROS generation upon green light activation is shown. Fluorescentemission signals of radical sensing probes are recorded from regeneratedmKate2 silk solutions and films. With reference to FIGS. 4A and 4B,photographs and fluorescent images of mKate2 silk solution and film areshown. With reference to FIG. 4C, a photograph of large-area flexiblemKate2 silk film with a diameter of 120 mm is shown. With reference toFIGS. 4D and 4E, fluorescent emission signals of radical sensing probesof TEMPO-9-ac are provided, for

, as shown in FIG. 4D, and for ABDA for ¹O₂ as shown in FIG. 4E. Insetsof FIGS. 4D and 4E show differences in fluorescent spectra with respectto controls (before green light activation). The red fluorescentemission is maintained in both the regenerated mKate2 silk solution andfilm under green light excitation as depicted in FIGS. 19A and 19B. Withreference to FIGS. 19A and 19B, fluorescent spectra of regeneratedmKate2 silk and representative utilization of regenerated mKate2 silkare shown, in forms of a solution (FIG. 19A) and a film (FIG. 19B),respectively. Inset of FIG. 19A shows a photograph and fluorescent imageof the mKate2 silk solution. With reference to FIG. 19C, capability of aregenerated mKate2 silk film is shown to be integrated with a bandage,offering an additional functionality of controllable ROS release using asimple light source. The generation of

and ¹O₂ from the regenerated mKate2 silk products is also detected usingTEMPO-9-ac and ABDA, respectively (see FIGS. 4D and 4E). With theprolonged green light irradiation (λ_(ex)=532 nm and opticalintensity≈0.2 mW/mm²), the fluorescent signal of TEMPO-9-ac increases,while that of ABDA decreases, supporting the two types of ROSgeneration, respectively. Similarly, the photodegradation of methyleneblue in the mKate2 silk film results in k_(app)=1.12×10⁻³ min⁻¹ undergreen light irradiation, after removing the confounding effects (i.e.adsorption of methylene blue to silk and photolysis of methylene bluedue to green light irradiation) as shown in FIGS. 20A and 20B. Thephotodegradation of methylene blue from mKate2 silk films under thegreen light activation (λ_(ex)=532 nm and optical intensity≈0.2 mW/mm2)was thus validated. With reference to FIGS. 20A and 20B, photocatalyticactivity of regenerated mKate2 silk for degrading methylene blue undergreen light activation at the ambient temperature is depicted. Inparticular, with reference to FIG. 20A, photodegradation of methyleneblue upon green light activation is shown. The inset of FIG. 20A shows akinetic plot for methylene blue degradation by mKate2 silk film afterfactoring out the adsorbent effect of mKate2 silk film and thephotolytic effect of light irradiation (kapp=1.12×10−3 min−1). Withreference to FIG. 20B, confounding factors in photodegradation ofmethylene blue by mKate2 silk film for the adsorption of methylene blueto the mKate2 silk film and the photolysis of methylene blue under thegreen light irradiation are provided. The error bars represent standarddeviations.

Various embodiments representing applications of mKate2 silk or othervariations of the genetically modified silkworm produced silk is shownin FIGS. 5A-5E. These applications include protective suits includingscrubs, gloves, or other sheet material that can be used in medical andnon-medical garment industry (including for burn patients), masks,wallpaper, bandages, and filtration applications (water, air, and otherfilters known to a person having ordinary skill in the art).

Various other embodiments of fluorescent silk polymers are shown INFIGS. 6A-6D, which include an ointment gel for wounds to be applieddirectly to skin surface, polymer films, mask packs, and separatebandage patches attachable to existing bandages.

In another embodiment, given the edible nature of mKate2 silk, fruitscan be wrapped with the material to preserve for longer periods of time.Referring to FIG. 7, blackberry fruit is wrapped with mKate2 silk, andas shown in day 7, while a control population is degraded significantly,the fruit wrapped with mKate2 silk remains substantially unchanged.

Referring to FIG. 8, a process for making various embodiments of mKate2silk is shown. The process includes, harvesting mKate2 silk, cutting thematerial into small pieces, placing the cut material into a solution toremove sericin in the silk. In the embodiment shownNaHCO₃+Alcalase+dithiothreitol (DTT) is used as the solvent for about 4hours at about 50° C., but other solvents and processes known to aperson having ordinary skill can be used. Once the sericin has beenremoved from the cut pieces, sericin-removed mKate2 silk issubstantially dried and then dissolved in a solution (LiBr) for 4 hoursat 45° C. The dissolved mKate2 silk is then taken through a dialysisprocess by placing it in DI water to generate mKate2 fluorescent silksolution.

The results show that one purpose of fluorescent proteins existing innature could be photoinducible ROS generation, while the fluorescentemission may be a secondary consequence. Specifically, ROS generationfrom fluorescent proteins involves long-range electron transfer via twopossible mechanisms of direct tunneling and hopping inside fluorescentproteins. The current understanding of this process is based on quantummechanics, because electron tunneling over such a long distance of 1.5-3nm is typically impossible in vacuum. As an electron donor, (E)GFP hasbeen successfully tested for generating electricity as photovoltaics forbioenergy applications. However, we note that the directphotosensitization properties of RFP have not yet been exploited forscalable photocatalysis.

While mKate2 silk is discussed primarily in the present disclosure,other fluorescent transgenic silk can replace mKate2 silk in eachembodiment. These include KillerRed, SuperNova, KillerOrange, Dronpa,TurboGFP, and mCherry, which all have similar a β-barrel structure witha water-filled pore, and which can also be used to tune the excitationwavelength range and to select the photosensitization properties.

Experimental Section

Materials: For silkworm transgenesis for producing mKate2 silk, we usedBombyx mori bivoltine strain, Keumokjam (F1 hybrid between the Japaneseparental line Jam 125 and the Chinese parental line Jam 140) from theNational Academy of Agricultural Science (Wanju, South Korea).DNA-injected eggs were kept at 25° C. in moist Petri dishes. The hatchedlarvae (i.e. silkworms) were reared in groups and fed with mulberryleaves under standard conditions (e.g. 25±2° C. and 80±10% relativehumidity). For wild-type white silk, Bombyx mori (Baekokjam, Jam 123×Jam124) was used.

We used the following chemicals as received: Methylene blue(C₁₆H₁₈CIN₃S, 0.05 wt. % in H₂O), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO; (CH₃)₂SO,99%), phosphate buffered saline (PBS; pH 7.4), sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃,≥99%), Triton X100, alcalase enzyme, dithiothreitol (DTT; C₄H₁₀O₂S₂,≥98%), lithium bromide (LiBr, ≥99%), dialysis tube (pore size 12,000 DaMWCO), miracloth (pore size 22-25 μm),9,10-anthracenediyl-bis(methylene)dimalonic acid (ABDA; C₂₂H₁₈O₈, ≥90%),sodium azide (NaN₃, ≥99.5%), and nitro blue tetrazolium chloride (NBT;C₄₀H₃₀Cl₂N₁₀O₆, ≥98%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (Milwaukee,USA). 4-[(9-acridinecarbonyl)amino]-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl(TEMPO-9-ac; C₂₃H₂₆N₃O₂, 95%) was purchased from Synchem UG & Co. KG(Altenburg, Germany). De-ionized (DI) water (Milli-Q® system) was usedin all of the experiments. All experiments were performed under theambient conditions (22±2° C. and 40±10% relative humidity).

Construction of plasmid vector DNA for silk transgenesis: We constructedthe transition vector p3xP3-EGFP-pFibH-mKate2 as the piggyBac-derivedvector and injected the vector DNA with a helper vector intopre-blastoderm embryos, as shown in the construction sequence map. Toobtain the fibroin pormoter, the DNA fragment (GenBank Accession No.AF226688, nucleotides 61312-63870) including pFibH promoter domain (1124bp), N-terminal region 1 (NTR-1, 142 bp), first intron (871 bp), andN-terminal region 2 (NTR-2, 417 bp) was amplified by polymerase chainreaction (PCR) using the genomic DNA from Bombyx mori and specificprimers (pFibHN-F: 5′-GGCGCGCCGTGCGTGATCAGGAAAAAT-3′ and pFibHN-R:5′-TGCACCGACTGCAGCACTAGTGCTGAA-3′), followed by treatments withrestriction enzymes of AscI/NotI. The resultant DNA fragment was clonedinto pGEM-T Easy Vector System (Promega, Co), named as pGEMT-pFibH-NTR.The DNA fragment (GenBank Accession No. AF226688, nucleotides79021-79500) including C-terminal region (179 bp, CTR) and poly(A)signal region (301 bp) of the heavy chain was amplified by PCR usinggenomic DNA from Bombyx mori and specific primers (pFibHC-F:5′-CCTGCAGGAAGTCGACAGCGTCAGTTACGGAGCTGGCAGGGGA-3′ and pFibHC-R:5′-GGCCGGCC TATAGTATTCTTAGTTGAGAAGGCATA-3′) and then the resultant DNAfragment was cloned into pGEM-T Easy Vector System with the restrictionenzymes of SalI/SbfI/FseI, named as pGEMT-CTR. And then, these twofragments were cloned with pBluescriptII SK(−) (Stratagene, CA) digestedwith ApaI/SalI, creating pFibHNC-null. The mKate2 gene was synthesizedfrom BIONEER Co., and then it was cloned into pGEM-T Easy Vector SystempGEMT-mKate2 (720 bp). N- and C-terminal had the NotI and SbfIrestriction sites, respectively. The mKate2 cDNA was digested withNotI/SbfI and subcloned into a pFibHNC-null digested with NotI/SbfI,resulting in pFibHNC-mKate2. The pFibHNC-mKate2 vector was digested withAscI/FseI and subcloned into pBac-3xP3-EGFP. The resultant vector wasnamed as p3xP3-EGFP-FibH-mKate2.

Removal of sericin in silk-Degumming: For effective generation andrelease of reactive oxygen species (ROS) from mKate2 silk, it wascritical to remove the outermost layer of silk fibers, which is alsoknown as sericin. We removed sericin using a degumming process. We notethat the outer sericin layer is commonly removed to improve the color,sheen, and texture of silk, in the silk textile industry. To minimizethe denaturation of both silk and fluorescent proteins, mKate2 silkcocoons were soaked in a pre-warmed mixture solution of Na₂CO₃ (0.2%)and Triton X100 (0.1%) at a low temperature of about 60° C. under avacuum pressure. During the degumming process, low pressure treatmentsof 620 mmHg were repeated several times to uniformly infiltrate thesolution between silk fibers to remove most sericin. The degummedcocoons were dried at air ambient.

Irradiation sources for green light: For excitation of mKate2 silk, weused two different green light sources with different opticalintensities: i) A diode-pumped solid-state laser coupled with a 10× zoomGalilean beam expander was used (λ=532 nm and optical intensity≈0.2mW/mm² on the sample surface). Ii) As an easily accessible common lightsource, a green light-emitting diode (LED) was used (λ=530 nm with aFWHM of 30 nm and optical intensity≈0.02 mW/mm² on the sample surface).

Photodegradation of methylene blue as general photocatalyticquantification: We quantified photodegradation of methylene blue,resulting from ROS generated by mKate2 silk under green lightactivation. For mKate2 silk specimens, silk cocoon shells were punchedinto 5-mm-diameter discs with a thickness of ˜ 400 μm. We prepared 15-mLmethylene blue solutions (1 mL 0.05 wt. % methylene blue in 14 mL DIwater) containing 12 silk discs (total weight=0.06 g). To reach theadsorption-desorption equilibrium in each test, the silk discs werestirred with 400 rpm in dark for two hours. While being stirred, thesilk discs were irradiated by green light (λ_(ex)=532 nm and opticalintensity≈0.2 mW/mm²) for four hours. Aliquots of 0.5 mL were collectedrepeatedly with a fixed time interval and the spectral absorption ofmethylene blue was measured using a fiber bundle-coupled spectrometerwith a white-light tungsten halogen source. To exactly quantify thephotocatalytic activity of mKate2 silk only, separate degradation testsof methylene blue were also carried out to factor out for twoconfounding effects: i) the adsorption of methylene blue to silk under adark condition (i.e. no light irradiation) and ii) the photolysis ofmethylene blue without any silk discs due to the green lightirradiation. For each elapsed irradiation time, a relative concentrationC_(t)/C₀ of methylene blue was calculated using the absorption spectrumpeak values at λ=668 nm normalized by the initial-time absorption value(FIG. 2A and FIG. 13). We estimated the reaction kinetics, following theapparent pseudo-first-order rate equation of Langmuir-Hinshelwoodkinetics: ln(C_(t)/C₀)=−k_(app)t, where k_(app) is the rate constant(min⁻¹) and t is the irradiation time (Insets of FIG. 2A).

Bacterial inactivation as general detection of ROS: We tested ROSgenerated from mKate2 silk by inactivating Escherichia coli (E. coli)upon green light activation. We conducted four different groups of twodifferent types of silk (i.e. white silk and mKate2 silk) and two lightconditions (i.e. irradiation and unirradiation). We repeated theseexperiments for two different irradiation times of 30 and 60 minutes.Each bacterial inactivation experiment was performed in 3 assays with 4replicates (n=12) in each group for statistical analyses. DH5α E. colicells were grown in a Luria-Bertani (LB) medium at 37° C. in a shakingincubator to an optical density at 600 nm (OD₆₀₀) of 2.5 (˜ 2×10⁹cells/mL). The culture was diluted 10-fold and subsequently, white andmKate2 silk discs (diameter=6 mm) were placed on the culture. Afterincubation at 37° C. for 60 minutes, each silk disc was dried in darkfor 30 minutes. For optical excitation of mKate2, the silk discs on ahydrated filter paper were irradiated with the green LED source(λ_(ex)=530 nm with a FWHM of 30 nm and optical intensity≈0.02 mW/mm²)for 30-60 minutes at the ambient room temperature, including white silkdiscs for comparisons. Without any irradiation, both white and mKate2silk discs were kept in dark under the same conditions as two differentcontrol groups. After green light activation, each silk disc wastransferred to a PBS of 1 mL and E. coli cells were eluted by shakingincubation for 60 minutes. To achieve a reasonable number of survivingcells for counting the colonies, the eluted cells were diluted up to1000-fold, plated on the LB agar, and incubated overnight at 37° C. CFUfrom the mKate2 silk disc irradiated under weak green light for 60minutes was clearly lower than that of the mKate2 silk disc in dark(FIG. 2B). Because our biological experiments carried four differentgroups, we conducted ANOVA and multiple comparisons tests. Inparticular, Duncan multiple comparison (two-sided) tests set a 5% levelof significance for all pairs of means (six possible comparisons). Theassumptions (i.e. normality and uniform variance) for the parametricanalyses were tested. We performed the statistical analyses using Stata14.2 (College Station, Tex., USA).

Detection of superoxide and singlet oxygen using radical probe sensors:As free radical sensing probes of

and ¹O₂, we used TEMPO-9-ac(4-((9-Acridinecarbonyl)amino)-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl) andABDA (9,10-Anthracenediyl-bis(methylene)dimalonic acid), respectively.While in the original state of TEMPO-9-ac, acridine is quenched in thepresence of nitroxide moiety,

coverts nitroxide to the corresponding piperidine, which eliminates thequenching of the blue fluorophore. Thus, blue fluorescent emission fromthe acridine appears under ultraviolet light excitation (λ_(ex)≈360 nmand λ_(em)≈440 nm). The original state of ABDA emits fluorescence underultraviolet light excitation (λ_(ex)≈380 nm and λ_(em)≈431 nm).Fluorescent signals of TEMPO-9-ac and ABDA were measured using aspectrometer. In this study, TEMPO-9-ac and ABDA were initiallydissolved in DMSO and were diluted in PBS (pH 7.4), respectively,resulting in each solution containing 20-μM TEMPO-9-ac and 20-μM ABDA.In each measurement, 12 silk discs (diameter=5 mm and total weight=0.06g) or regenerated silk films were immersed in a TEMPO-9-ac or ABDAsolution with stirring of 400 rpm. Because water-soluble molecules areeasily smeared inside silk fibers, the adsorption-desorption equilibriumwas achieved prior to green light activation; the silk discs were keptin the solution with stirring of 400 rpm in a dark room for two hours atleast. Turn-on fluorescent signals of TEMPO-9-ac solutions and turn-offfluorescent signals of ABDA solutions were spectrofluorimetricallymonitored using a spectrometer (λ_(ex)=365 nm and λ_(em)=400-550 nm).Turn-on fluorescence (i.e. TEMPO-9-ac) from the silk discs was alsoimaged using a custom-build mesoscopic (between microscopic andmacroscopic) imaging setup (λ_(ex)=365 nm and λ_(em)=420-500 nm) (seeFIGS. 15A and 15B).

Detection of superoxide and singlet oxygen using fluorogenic scavengers:By detecting reduced photobleaching of mKate2 silk in the presence of

and ¹O₂ scavengers, we further validated the radical-based Type I andType II reactions, because ROS contributes to photobleaching. Inparticular, we took advantage of TEMPO-9-ac and ABDA as physicalquenchers or fluorogenic scavengers of

and ¹O₂, respectively. The photobleaching effect of mKate2 emission wasreduced under green light irradiation in the presence of TEMPO-9-acsolution; the fluorescent emission was relatively maintained over theirradiation time (λ_(ex)=532 nm and optical intensity≈0.2 mW/mm²) in thepresence of the physical scavenger of

. Similarly, ¹O₂ generation was detected by the maintained fluorescentintensity of mKate2 silk in the presence of ABDA. In addition, weconfirmed reduced photobleaching rates of mKate2 using NBT and NaN₃,which are often used as a scavenger of

and ¹O₂, respectively (see FIGS. 17A and 17B).

Regeneration of mKate2 silk: To use the polymeric nature of silk, weregenerated mKate2 silk by extracting mKate2 silk fibroin from silkcocoon shells, minimizing heat-induced denaturation of mKate2. mKate2silk cocoons were cut to pieces with sizes less than 5 mm and wereheated for four hours at ˜ 45° C. in an aqueous solution of 50-mM NaHCO₃with alcalase (1.5 ml/L) with stirring of 400 rpm. Subsequently, thesilk fibers were washed with deionized water (˜ 35° C.) several timesand were dried in ambient for 24 hours. Then, the silk fibers werecompletely dissolved in a 9.5-M LiBr solution with 1 mM DTT at 45° C.The dissolved solution was filtered through a miracloth and dialyzedwith DI water for two days to remove the remaining the salt. The finalconcentration of mKate2 silk fibroin in the solution was ˜ 4-5 (w/v) %.The solution was stored at 4° C. in dark before use. The fabricationprocess of the mKate2 silk solution was carried out under darkenvironment to minimize photobleaching of mKate2 in silk by room light.To form silk films, the solution was dried at 30° C. for 12 hours in anoven under dark.

Those having ordinary skill in the art will recognize that numerousmodifications can be made to the specific implementations describedabove. The implementations should not be limited to the particularlimitations described. Other implementations may be possible.

1. A method of inactivating harmful microorganisms of a filtrationmedium including pathogenic bacteria and viruses, comprising: placing apredetermined quantity of a hybridized fluorescent silk on to afiltration medium; applying light for a predetermined amount of time tothe placed quantity of the hybridized fluorescent silk; and passing afluid through the medium, wherein the fluid is one of substantially airor substantially water, wherein the hybridized fluorescent silk is oneof KillerRed, SuperNova, KillerOrange, Dronpa, TurboGFP, mCherry, or anycombination thereof.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the hybridizedfluorescent silk is generated by adding fluorescent molecules orproteins during a silk polymer manufacturing process harvested fromnon-genetically engineered domesticated silkworms.
 3. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the fluorescent molecules are porphyrin and porphyrinderivatives.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the predetermined amountof time is based on pathogen types, concentrations, irradiation lightintensity, and wavelength range of the light.
 5. The method of claim 4,wherein the predetermined amount of time is at least about 60 minutesfor E. coli for a green light having a wavelength of about 530 nm with aFull width at half maximum (FWHM) of about 30 nm and an opticalintensity of about 0.02 mW/mm².
 6. The method of claim 3, wherein thepredetermined amount of time is based on a first order approximationgoverned by Y=−mX+b, where Y is E. coli colony-forming unit, where theslope is about −752.57, and a starting point of about
 141884. 7. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the filtration medium is one of an airfiltration membrane, a bandage, a mask, a surgical outfit, a personalprotective equipment (PPE), a seat fabric, a wallpaper, material usableas a wearable item, or any combination thereof.
 8. The method of claim1, wherein the hybridized fluorescent silk is applied as an ointment.